Assessment Of Frontal Lobe Dysfunction

Assessment Of Frontal Lobe Dysfunction It has been established that the frontal lobes play a major part in an individual’s decision making, planning, problem solving, social, emotional and behavioural skills. Consequently dysfunction of the frontal lobe can cause a wide range of symptoms (Kolb and Wishaw 1996) leading to relatively specific clinical dysfunction therefore a neuropsychological assessment is necessary to be carried out on the patient. The present study looks at the case of patient Mr. A who is reported to experience attention difficulties and problems with planning and organising after sustaining a head injury. Three neuropsychological tests have been used; WCST, TMT and TEA in order to identify the extent of the deficit. In line with previous research Mr. A’s performed poorly on tests and scored low in comparison to the normative scores. Other tests have also been suggested as well as strategies of rehabilitation for the patient. Frontal lobe located at the front of the cerebral hemisphere is the largest lobe in the brain associated with an individual’s personality and emotional control. The frontal lobes are responsible for planning, organising, selective attention, personality, behaviour and emotions. As well as this the frontal lobes are also involved in motor function (Passingham 1995), Spontaneity of behaviour (Kolb and Milner 1981), initiation, judgement, impulse control (Milner 1964, Miller 1985), social and sexual behaviour (Damasio 1985). More specifically the right frontal lobe is associated with an individual’s sense of humour, self awareness, self face recognition and episodic memory (Stuss 1991, Fink et al 1996, Wheeler et al 1997, Levine et al 1998, Craik et al 1999, Keenan et al 1999, Shammi and Stuss 1999). It is the orbitofrontal cortex that arbitrates empathic, civil and socially appropriate behaviour (Mega and Cummings 1994). Furthermore it is also reported that executive processes of the prefrontal lobe are responsible for planning, mon itoring, energizing, switching and inhibition (Stuss 2007). In the recent years cognitive neuroscience studies have shown that damage to the frontal lobe can affect high level of cognitive functions as well as an individual’s personality, their social behaviour, personal memories and their self awareness (Alexander et al 1979, Brazzelli et al 1994, Damasio 1994, Adolphs et al 1995, Channon and Crawford 1999, Rogers et al 1999, Stuss et al 2001). Studies have also shown that damage to the prefrontal lobe particularly damage to the ventromedial frontal is associated with poor decision making (Eslinger and Damasio 1985, Harlow 1999, Ackerly 2000). In addition to this damage to the left or right orbitofrontal results in personality changes including indifference or impaired social judgement, impaired pragmatics, deficient effective responsiveness, poor self-regulation and lack of ability to relate social situations with personal experience (Nauta 1973, Stuss and Benson 1983, Kacz marek 1984). Damage to the orbitofrontal cortex also results in the patient’s change of personality whereby they might become more irritable, labile, display lack of self restraint and fail to respond to the conventions of socially acceptable behaviour. In some case studies patients have reported descriptions of behavioural changes that are related to social difficulties such as egocentrism, insensitivity to social cues, unresponsiveness to another’s opinion, lack of self restraint, diminished foresight, impaired self monitoring, a propensity to show signs of inappropriate affect and social withdrawal (Eslinger and Damasio 1985, Eslinger et al 1992, Price et al 1990). The famous case of Phineas Gage was the first case study to highlight the impact of frontal lobe damage on an individual’s personality, decision making and social behaviour (Damasio 1994). Phineas Gage suffered an extreme injury to the frontal lobe when a 13 pound, 3-foot-long tamping rod when thro ugh his head; entering through his left cheek and exiting through the midline of his skull. Astonishingly after the event Gage still had the ability to walk, communicate and remain lucid and was examined by Dr Harlow (1848) who noticed the changes in his behaviour. In his report Harlow identified that from previously being identified as a smart, efficient, dependable and capable foreman by his employers and diligent, honest and well liked by friends, after his accident Gage became fitful, irreverent, foulmouthed liar, impatient, extravagant, anti social and profane especially when advice was given to him that he didn’t like (Harlow 1868).

Pot use may mellow out men's sexual function Article

Pot use may mellow out men's sexual function - Article Example On this count alone the use of pot must be dismissed forthwith. Any induced increase in sex, is bound to have unfavorable consequences. This is pure commonsense. The view that male smokers could be courting sexual dysfunction is gaining ground and getting acceptance. Let me illustrate this issue with an example for better understanding. I like coffee. Drink one cup, fine; drink two cups, somewhat fine! Drink three cups, somewhat difficult to digest; and the fourth cup†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ I vomit! This is true of all additions. If any addiction takes over the human control system, it will definitely overtake him and the concerned human being will lose control and will be trapped into that addiction. â€Å"But recent research – including the finding that the penis contains receptors for marijuana's active ingredient – suggests that young men may want to think about long-term effects before rolling a joint.† The younger generation needs to take care and should not fall in to the trap of this drug.

How does violent game effect to children Research Paper

How does violent game effect to children - Research Paper Example different positions and confusion over the effect of video games on children, it is lucid that results incline more on the negative than on the positive. This paper seeks to address this concern and bring out the actual issues clouding video games on the limelight. Video games have been in existence now for over fifty years. In 1952, Tic-Tac-Toe was developed by A.C. Douglas as part of a science project for his thesis, becoming the first video game to be created. Douglas used Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer, and emulator to construct his software, which contained 17 bits and 512 words. Still in the 1950s, William Higinbotham, a Brookhaven employee, developed an elementary game of tennis with an oscilloscope serving as its interface. At times, people refer to his game as the original version of â€Å"pong,† although it is not. Later, in the 1960s, Steve Russel, in 1962, developed Spacewar during his graduate studies. He involved several other students in his work, which later went through modifications and enhancements. His work impacted innumerous students including Nolan Bushnell. In 2010, Kirsch records a video game named Spacewar, developed in 1962, in which spaceship engaged in a fierce battle to death. Although the vide o game design was poor compared to contemporary games, the battling theme of the game has endured through several decades (Herman, Horwitz, Kent, & Miller, 2002). The development of the computer and television also impacted the development of video games greatly. In 1966, Ralph Baer assessed several methods he could use the television to act as a display mechanism for computer games he developed. He later developed and patented the first video game ever to use the television set as its display. Baer entered into a deal with Magnavox in1970 to create a video gaming console. At the same time, Nolan was also busy developing the first game ever to demand pay from gamers. He became successful with his Spacewar game project marking the

Kant's Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals Essay

Kant's Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals - Essay Example The moral worth is determined by the principle acted upon. Therefore, as a Kantian, taking coffee from the automated machine to meet the addiction is morally worth since the airline pilot is on duty and he or she works for the airline. Taking coffee from an automated machine that belongs to the airline for his good and of the passages is morally good. In addition to that, Kant argues that â€Å"true inclination of purpose must be to yield a will that is upright† (Kant and Allen, 31), in other words, Kant that the actions done by a man should serve another purpose that is good. The primary intention of the airliner is to be sober while piloting the plane. His intentions and motives are clear. He does not want to consume the coffee to satisfy his natural pleasure. Therefore, according to Kant, the action of him taking coffee without paying is morally accepted. Finally as a Kantian, it is good to seek assistance and permission from any attendant who is around. By doing so it one creates a channel of order or law in which other people would follow if cornered by such a situation. Kant observes that â€Å"I should never act apart from in a way that my maxim had better become a law that is universally accepted†, (Kant and Allen, 74) Kant is arguing one should do something with the understanding that whatever they are doing can become a law through which other people will be allowed to do the same thing. As a Kantian it is therefore good to use the right channels in obtaining the coffee. The airline pilot can look for an attendant to the automated machine and present his request. In doing so, he creates a law in which other people in a situation like his will follow to be helped. As to conclusion, a person has the free will to do anything one wants, however according to Kant in â€Å"Ground Work for the Metaphysics of Moral†; the will of a person is bound by moral law if that will is free. This is to say that a Kantian should do

Role of a Mentor in Barriers to Learning

Role of a Mentor in Barriers to Learning Critically analyse and discuss the role of the mentor in managing a student who is not achieving competence in some of their practice outcomes and is not demonstrating an appropriate knowledge base. Within this assignment I will endeavour to explain the role of the mentor and student highlight the different barriers to learning, critically analyse different theoretical practices to enable learning and be able to theoretically underpin the strategies that I hope to put into practice as a mentor should I encounter a problem with a student being unable to underpin their knowledge with practice, Duffy and Hardicre (2007), suggests that mentors find that one of the most challenging aspects of the mentoring role, is when students are not achieving the expected level of performance. This essay is not concentrating of how to fail a student from the nursing course, but to discuss why a student may be having difficulty in showing the mentor that they are competent with some of their practice outcomes and the student being unable to show the mentor that they can relate their theoretical knowledge to the practice. The mentor is pivotal in being one of the first to usually recognise struggli ng students, and need to assess, plan, and evaluate how these obstacles can be removed, overcome, compensated for, or managed. This should be, documented, the form of an action plan devised by the student and the mentor perhaps with advice from sign-off mentors on the ward, or if required outside sources such as the disability adviser, or the educational link lecturer for the placement. Arguably the three main areas that can impede a student ability to learn are the mentor, the student and the placement environment. The placement itself has may have some fixed constraints in terms of environment, room size, as well as some dynamic concerns such as learning opportunities, work load, time restraints, noise, temperature. The term mentor is derived from a character in an ancient Greek play, The Odyssey. Back in 1978 Levinson et al described the core components of the mentor not only as an exemplar and counsellor but also as a teacher, sponsor, developer of skills, developer of intellect and host, (cited in Oliver and Endersby 1999). The NMC (2006) described a mentor as an individual who has achieved the knowledge, skills and competence required to meet the defined outcome in stage 2 of the developmental framework to support learning and assessment in practice, cited RCN toolkit (2007), therefore the mentor has the shared enhanced knowledge base and key skills which is pivotal in supporting the student in achieving competence in the required skills of a nursing, this is reflected in the amount of classroom theory, and ward based learning being a 50% split, of the students time for the three years pre-registration. Policy documents such as Standards to Support Learning and Assessment in Practice (NMC, 2 008a) show the capabilities that a professional needs to demonstrate and the criteria that a professional should work to achieve the status of mentor. Lloyd Jones et al (2001) have suggested three core reasons for providing ward based learning for student nurses are: The acquisition of skills and knowledge Application of theory to practice Professional identify formulation and ‘enculturisation’ Mentorship therefore has came to mean, Haggard et al, cited Nick et al (2012), a one to one reciprocal relationship between more experienced and knowledgeable faculty member and a less experienced one. According to Cahill (1996), cited in Morton-cooper and Palmer (2000), the student mentor relationship moves through three different phases during the duration of a placement these are: Initiation phase Working phase Termination phase One of the numerous things to consider during this essay will be the assessment process and how this needs to be fair and consistent for the student and allow them to develop individually to achieve a level of competence in the skills required to become a professional nurse. Before a student even starts on a ward the mentor should prepare for the students arrival reviewing the wards welcome pack, ensuring that it is up to date and that the information held within it continues to be valid and relevant. The welcome pack should include the placement ethos, aims, learning outcomes content, and how these are to be assessed. In addition the welcome pack identifies all the processes that take place whilst the student is undertaking the placement and support mechanisms available to the student. This should allow the student to undertake any pre placement reading, and demonstrates to all students that the placement takes educating students seriously from the beginning. The mentor should also prepare their shift pattern to accommodate the student. Mayall et al (2008) undertook a study exploring the experiences of student nurses and practice mentors and discovered that 10% of student nurses felt that during some of their placements they had ‘never’ bee n allocated a mentor, and of those who had been allocated a named mentor, 24% felt that they would have liked to spend more time with them. Therefore ensuring that the preparation work for the placement is in place, assists the student to form a positive opinion for the learning environment, and relationship with the mentor, from the beginning improving the chances for lack of competency to be addressed early. During the first interview that the mentor has with the student, in the first week of placement, the mentor should review the progress of the student from any previous placements and experience that they have gained. The mentor also has an opportunity to review the feedback given to the student from the previous mentor. The mentor can review the skills book to find competencies not achieved in previous placements, and highlight learning opportunities within the placement that the student may be lacking at this stage of their study that the student can gain during the placement. This could simply be due to the previous placement not being able to provide a learning opportunity due to case load, time, and type of placement, or this could have been because of the previous mentor’s attitude. Darling (1986), cited in Walsh (2010), described four types of toxic mentors that can negatively affect a student’s ability to achieve competence these are Avoiders Blockers Destroyers Dumpers The student has a responsibility set out by the guidance on professional conduct for nursing and midwifery students to take responsibility for their own learning, working safely for the people they care for, under the supervision and support of a qualified nurse NMC (2010). This duty should allow the student to openly communicate with the mentor highlighting any deficit in their practice or their under pinning theory which needs to be concentrated on in order to become competent, these learning needs could be communication difficulties and educational requirements such as should a student has English as a second language, dyslexia, dyscalculia or hearing issues can be a huge barrier as it can lead to misinterpretation of core theories, or feedback from the mentor. This ideally should be discussed at the initial interview; however the student may not feel confident within the relationship to reveal minor issues at this time but the mentor may have an instinctive feeling from the evide nce provided by the student from their previous placement which could restrict the student’s capability for achieving competency in their theory or practice. The mentor should have prepared for the initial interview and take control of the continuous assessment of the student’s practical learning and be able to link this to underpinning theory, by creating a placement plan for the student to review. The student and the mentor should both contribute to a learning contract to which they both sign up to what the student and the mentor expect to realistically achieve by the end of the placement. Indicating how this is to happen and any learning needs of the student, and when the practical and theoretical evidence should be formatively reviewed and assessed. Once the foundations of the placement expectations have been agreed then the formative part of the student’s placement during which the mentor should be formulating an opinion of the student’s competency practically and theoretically, based upon evidence either witnessed learning, discussions, spoke feedback forms etc. During the ‘initial phase’ of the placement the mentor has a duty to foster a professional relationship with the student. It is important that when the student is in the ward with their mentor that they feel a sense of belongingness as recognised by Levett-Jones Lathlean (2007) as this can ‘enhance a students’ potential for learning and influenced their future career decisions.’ The relationship can there for move from the ‘initiation phase’ to the ‘working phase’, Cahill, (1996). During the ‘working phase’ feedback is an important factor for both the student and the mentor. The mentor may get feedback from colleagues, spoke placements, previous placements or the student which will assist them in forming an opinion of the student’s competency to the required level of study. The student, themselves, needs to receive frequent, clear constructive feedback, on their progress, from their mentor. It is one of the NMC requirements that the mentor provides feedback to a student as often as it is needed to guide performance (NMC 2008). Accurate feedback will encourage students to reflect on their learning and provides an opportunity to identify how they can improve their performance (Elcock and Sharples 2011). This should take place away from patients or other colleagues’, and ideally this should be given as soon after a positive or a negative incident. The feedback should be non judgemental and form the basis of a discussion. This should be given when both the student and the mentor is calm and should be specific on the strengths and weaknesses. Duffy (2013) gives five principles for providing constructive feedback Set realistic goals Gage student expectations of feedback Gather information on student practice Act immediately Be specific The feedback sandwich where the mentor gives praise, criticism followed by praise, that the student has brought to an incident is an effective feedback theory which can assist with giving criticism of a student’s failings, while still motivating them, however this needs to be done effectively. Belludi (2008) illustrates how a mentor can use this technique incorrectly, giving too much weight to the praise compared to the criticism by the praise being trivial and having no function By overusing the sandwich feedback style to a point where the student recognises that the mentor uses this all the time and waits for the criticism whenever the mentor gives praise. The feedback sessions should allow the student to reflect on the incident and allow the student to ask questions. The feedback should highlight any further learning required and solutions to address these shortfalls in knowledge. This could be backed up in writing up of the feedback as a discussion or planned subsequent leaning requirements to develop themselves, this written feedback will provide evidence for the student’s competence and development during the placements assessment. The mid-point interview is the formative interview. Up to this point the student’s relationship with the mentor has hopefully developed, as long as the mentor has not been a toxic mentor, Darling (1986), to the point where, previously, undeclared learning needs of the student may be revealed. The formative interview allows the student and the mentor to assess the progress so far and formatively assess the student’s competency and attitude. This is the point at which deficits in learning should be formatively addressed. Duffy (2003) recognised that â€Å"Failing to tell students that they have not reached the required standards does not protect the interests of the public or professions and puts the patients who will be under their care at risk†. The mentor may have doubts as to the students practice or theory demonstrated but is unsure how to deal with this, the mentor may need to liaise with another mentor, or a sign-off mentor for their opinion as they may have more, or different experience in mentoring and be able to advise the student’s mentor as to a strategy to introduce to encourage competency. The student should bring with them the evidence of their competence gathered throughout the placement. The mentor needs to highlight to the student where they are lacking competence and an action plan should be written up describing how the issues are to be addressed. If the mentor has not already highlighted concerns that they have with the student’s competency with the academic establishment then there may be an opportunity to invite them to attend this meeting. The student’s academic advisor, or the link lecturer, may assist in the formulation of the action plan and be supportive of both the student and the mentor. This input by the academic establishment is essential at an early stage should the student continue to not demonstrate competency either practically or theoretically and go on to fail the summative part of th e placement. The action plan, however, should identify clearly learning outcomes detailing how these can be achieved during the placement, list the evidence required for achievement and indicate by when the evidence is required to be provided. This needs to be agreed by both the mentor and the student. The final part of the placement, the termination phase, concludes with the final interview this is summatively assessed and if a student has not been showing competency previously may also be attended by the link lecturer or another academic member, and should review the whole development of the student during the placement. Evaluating the evidence that the student has provided and all being well the student, with the mentor, should have responded positively to the feedback provided during the placement and address any the action plan put in place at the mid-interview. Meaning that by this point the student should be able to demonstrate competency both practically and theoretically having evidence to underpin this. The attitude of the student, during the time of the placement, to absorbing knowledge is affected by many factors. The background experience that the student has experienced such as, prior work experience or learning experience from a mentor, be that positive or negative. Personal life matters i.e. house moving, child care. Financial stress can impact the student’s receptiveness to learning. Academic pressures based on the student can distract the student from gaining an outcome in the ward based placement. As eluded to earlier a student also needs to feel a sense of belonging within the placement team, when students are secure in the knowledge that the nursing staff are supportive of their learning needs and committed to their professional development they can focus on learning rather than being preoccupied with interpersonal relationships, (Levett-Jones and Lathlean 2007). Student nurses have had their learning styles categorised into different types by various authors, a commonly used classification of learning styles is Flemmings VAK model which he later expanded on to VARK. These acronyms stand for Visual -students give better results in pictures, graphs, diagrams Auditory- students learn better with listening to lectures, or discussing learning opportunities Reading and writing-learn better with word learning i.e. Reading journals, reports Kinesthetic/tactile learners learn best through demonstrations, practice experience. This highlights the need for being able to adapt the teaching style of the mentor to that of the student, and should be taken into account during the placement when learning, participating or reviewing learning opportunities, or by the mentor while developing a lesson plan. Honey and Munford 1986 cited in Brown and Plant 2013 suggested that a student can be classified into more than one of the following four styles Activists -these students need to experience situations and can become disheartened should they not be allowed the opportunity to undertake skills Pragmatists-these students like to have a go but need to see how the learning opportunity fits into the final outcome. Reflectors-these students will welcome the opportunity to observe and reflect on a given learning outcome prior to undertaking it but may require encouragement to practically undertaking a learning opportunity. Theorists-these students want to explore and understand learning opportunities probing questions to uncover reasons and concepts and do very well with structures pathways and systematic approach to nursing but can find it difficult to transcend that knowledge in light of swift changing learning opportunities Getting the mentoring style wrong when teaching the student, will have a negative effect on the student’s ability to achieve competence in a learning opportunity. If a visual pragmatists learner is given a verbal lecture about a learning objective and not shown how the opportunity fits into the wider care of the patient care, then the student may have a lower understanding of the learning opportunities, and objectives asked of them at that time and would need longer time and further investment by the mentor with a different approach being used to become competent. The role of a mentor is diverse, in their responsibilities, and requires the professional to be self aware of all the factors that can impede the student manage their expectations, and gain competence in a given area. The mentor needs to follow the assessment process to provide consistent assessments which will indicate areas of learning and allow the student to engage. As well as expanding a relationship with a student, the mentor needs to be able to consider many factors that inhibit learning, recognising that each student, is an individual with their own learning styles and needs. The mentor needs to feedback to the student regularly, motivating them to improve upon their current accomplishments. It should not be forgotten by the mentor that there are various resources available, with improving competency in practice and/or theory, to support both the mentor and the student through what could be a stressful experience in the form of literature, e-learning, other mentors or link le cturers. All the written documentation, skills book, learning contract, student handbook, placement plan, feedback forms, discussion sheets, lesson plans should provide an accurate record of the student’s development and enhancement as a student, throughout the placement. Not addressing a short fall in a students learning, early could make it difficult to evaluate the practical or theological practice of student’s summatively and not following a clear assessment process means that the student could appeal any decisions made at the final meeting. Students often pass placements despite there being serious concerns from mentors. Gainsbury (2010).

Essay --

Arts and Culture Elective assignment Name: Nishant Sharma Stream: Radio Roll no: PGDJ-13091 National School of Drama The national School of drama is considered to be of the foremost theatre-training institute in the world and one of its kinds in India. Every year hundreds of students apply for NSD and only 26 are selected. The school has produced some very fine actors like Pankaj Kapur, Anupam Kher, Naseeruddin Shah, Irrfan Khan and Surekha Sikri. Recently the hard work of one of the alumni of NSD also turned fruitful and that is Nawazuddin Siddiqui. It took him around 12 years to finally make his entry in Bollywood. The list of successful alumni’s of NSD is very diminutive. Every year NSD recruits 26 students for its 3 year course and their future still remains in dark. What role does institutes like National School of drama play in a country like India? How institutions like these are helping to expand the scope of theatre within the country? Before we delve into the shortcomings of NSD, let’s understand NSD and what all initiatives it takes to encourage theatre as an art form within the country. NSD was set up by Sangeet Natak Academy as one of its important units in 1959. Initially the school was situated at Nizamuddin West, and was called 'National School of Drama and Asian Theatre Institute, whose first batch passed out in 1961. But in 1975 it became an independent entity under the Ministry of Culture. The kind of Training that is imparted at NSD is considered to be highly intensive and is based on a comprehensive syllabus covering every aspect of theatre- Theory and practical. Students are also required to produce plays during the curriculum. These shows are then performed before the public. So Theory and practic... ...g to English daily also mentions that that nowhere in the world can one make a living out of theatre alone. According to him NSD should train actors for television, radio and films. He said â€Å"It would be fantastic if they could bring the kind of intensity generated in theatre training to other forums†. Also teaching theatre as an art needs to move and develop with time. There hasn’t been much change in the curriculum of NSD since its inception. They train people but they themselves have no clue about what’s next after the training. NSD should expand its wings and should open up more repertories in the country. The thing is NSD should not only hold workshops and festivals in Delhi but also in other parts of the country in order to promote the art form. The more it will reach out, the more people will show participation. It should not just be restricted to one place.

Reseach on Leukemia

â€Å"LEUKEMIA† CANCER OF THE BLOOD INTRODUCTION â€Å"You have to realize that every well person is a miracle, it takes billions of cells to make up a person, and it will only take one cell to be bad to destroy the whole person†, this quote is from Barbara Bush from one of her past interviews about a daughter she lost with leukemia (Cunningham, 1988). This quote reminded me five years ago, when my niece was diagnosed with leukemia. She does not only have one bad cell inside her body but she has extra 330,000 counts of white blood cells that are not normal.It was summer of year 2008 when my niece who is freshmen in high school was diagnosed with leukemia or cancer of the blood. Leukemia is a cancer that starts in the tissue that forms blood and affects the bone marrow (Anonymous A, 2012). Leukemia is found in white blood cells or leukocytes which characterized by an abnormal increase in white blood cells called â€Å"blast†, they do not fully form as they should and thereby blocking production of functioning blood cells. Unlike normal blood cells, leukemia cells don’t die when they should. They may crowd out normal white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets.This makes it hard for normal blood cells to do their work (Anonymous A 2012). Experiencing this type of cancer in our family makes me realize how a healthy body is truly a blessing that everybody should appreciate and learn how to take care of. Leukemia may not be the worst cancer we have right now, but many people of all ages suffer from this disease. According to the Leukemia and Lymphoma Society (2012), an estimated 274,930 people in the United States are living with or are in remission from Leukemia and an estimated 44,600 new cases of leukemia are expected to be diagnosed in the United States in 2011.It is also said that leukemia is the most common type of cancer in children and adolescents and is the tenth most frequently occurring type cancer of all races or ethnici ties (Leukemia and Lymphoma Society, 2012). Leukemia is a cancer that has a significant effect on our society, it is a non-sexist or ageist cancer that we should be aware of and be educated more on. BODY I. HISTORY OF LEUKEMIA Leukemia was first observed in 1845 by a pathologist named Rudolf Virchow.He observed an abnormal large number of white blood cells in a blood sample from a patient and called this condition â€Å"Leukamie† in German, which he formed from the two Greek words leukos, meaning â€Å"white† and aima, meaning â€Å"blood†. Ten years after this discovery, another pathologist, Franz Ernst Christian Neumann found that a deceased leukemia patient’s bone marrow was colored â€Å"dirty green-yellow† as opposed normal red colored. This finding helped Neumann to conclude that a bone marrow problem was responsible for the abnormal blood leukemia patients.In 1947 pathologist Sydney Farber believed from past experiments that administering, a folic acid mimic, could potentially cure leukemia for children. In 1962, researchers Emil J. Freireich Jr. and Emil Frei III used combination of chemotherapy to attempt to cure leukemia, the test were successful with some patients surviving long after the tests (Patlak, 1998). II. FOUR TYPES OF LEUKEMIA Leukemia is grouped by how quickly the disease develops (acute or chronic), as well as by the type of blood cells that is affected (lymphocytes or myelocytes) (Anonymous A. 012). Acute leukemia cells increases rapidly and usually worsens quickly than chronic leukemia. There are four main types of leukemia which includes acute lymphocytic leukemia â€Å"ALL†, chronic lymphocytic leukemia â€Å"CLL†, acute myelocytic leukemia â€Å"AML†, and chronic myelocytic leukemia â€Å"CML†. * Chronic lymphocytic leukemia â€Å"CLL† is the most common type of leukemia (Bazell, 2011). It affects the lymphoid cells and usually grows slowly or gets worst slowly. I t is also sometimes referred to as chronic lymphoblast leukemia (Anonymous B, 2012).Most often, people diagnosed with this type of leukemia are over the age of 55, it almost never affects children and more common in men than women. * Chronic myelogenous leukemia â€Å"CML† it is sometimes referred to as chronic myeloid leukemia or chronic granulocytic leukemia. This type of leukemia affects the myeloid cells and usually gets worse slowly. This type of leukemia occurs frequently in adults in their 50’s and is rarely seen in children. CML is also classified into three district phases, the chronic phase, accelerated phase and the blast crisis.Knowing the CML phase plays a large part in determining the type of treatment a patient will receive (Leukemia and Lymphoma Society, 2012). Each phase describes the CML’s progression which determined by the number of blast cells. * Chronic Phase, this phase is made up of patients with fewer than five percent blast in their blo od and bone marrow samples (The Survivors Club Staff, 2012). During this phase, the white cells can still fight infection. Patients in this phase have a very mild symptoms or not noticeable. In most cases, long term drug therapy can control this phase. Accelerated Phase, in this phase, the patients have more than five percent but less than thirty percent blast in their blood and bone marrow samples. Most patients within the accelerated phase suffer from loss of appetite and weight loss and do not respond as well as to traditional treatments. * Blast Crisis Phase or Acute Blast Phase, in this phase the patients has more than thirty percent blast cells and the cancer has spread from the bone marrow to other organs (The Survivor’s Club Staff, 2012). Because of elevated blast in the blood, this means lower than normal number of red blood cells and platelets. Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia â€Å"ALL†, this is most common type of childhood leukemia, which accounts for about 3 out of 4 cases of leukemia in children. It usually occurs in children ages 2 through 5 years. This disease also affects adults especially those ages 65 and older. ALL is the most successful treated type of childhood leukemia (Leukemia and Lymphoma Society, 2012). This type of leukemia usually gets worse quickly and sometimes referred to as acute lymphocytic leukemia. * Acute Myelogenous Leukemia â€Å"AML† occurs more commonly in men than women and more with adults than children.The incidence of AML increases with age. This is a kind of leukemia that gets worse quickly and sometimes referred to as acyte myeloid leukemia, acute myelocytic leukemia and myeloblastic leukemia (Anonymous, 2012). III. SIGNS & SYMPTOMS OF LEUKEMIA Like many other cancer, leukemia usually is diagnosed when it is in the accelerated stage because people usually go to the doctor only when they feel sick, and most often than not the symptoms for leukemia manifest when there is already a large amount of b last in the blood.People with chronic leukemia may not even have symptoms until it is in the accelerated phase. Because leukemia is characterized by rapid increase in the number of immature blood cells and by the excessive buildup of relative mature, but still abnormal white blood cells. The crowding of blast in the blood makes the bone marrow unable to produce healthy blood cells which results in lack of red blood cells that carries oxygen, lack of platelets which is important in blood clotting process and lack of healthy white blood cells which are important in fighting infections.When there is lack of platelets in the body this result in easy bruising or bleeding. Lack of red blood cells leads to paleness and fatigue due to anemia. With lack of healthy white blood cells the body is susceptible to infections and this could lead to patient experiencing frequent infection ranging from infected tonsils, sores in the mouth or diarrhea to life threatening infections (Morgan, 2010). Oth er symptoms of chronic and acute leukemia may include fevers or night sweats, weight loss for no known reason, pain in the bones or joints, swelling or discomfort in the abdomen from a swollen spleen or liver.Having the symptoms mentioned above does not necessary mean that a person has leukemia. If a person is experiencing more than one of the symptoms it is best to check with their doctor or a health care provider and do some blood test, only then can the doctor tell if a person has leukemia or not. Ignoring warning signs and symptoms can make a treatable condition terminal. The sooner a person checks with their doctor the better chances they have in fighting any disease. III. CAUSE OF LEUKEMIAThe exact cause of leukemia is not known and there is no known way to prevent this disease. Many doctors seldom know why one person gets leukemia and the other doesn’t (Anonymous A, 2012). However, according to the National Cancer Institute (2011), there are researches which show that certain risk factors increase the chance that a person will get leukemia. Some of the risk factors are radiation, smoking, benzene, chemotherapy, down syndrome and certain other inherited diseases, certain other blood disorders and family history of leukemia.Exposure to a very high level of radiation will make the person much more likely to get AML, CML and ALL. Exposure to radiation can come from atomic bomb explosions, radiation therapy and diagnostics x-rays. Smoking can also increase the risk of AMC. The average smoker is exposed to about 10 times the daily intake of benzene compared to nonsmokers (Leukemia and Lymphoma Society, 2012). Benzene is widely used in the chemical industry and it is also found in cigarette smoke and gasoline, exposure to benzene can increase a person’s risk of getting AMC.Chemotherapy, down syndrome and other inherited disease, certain blood disorder such as myelodysplastic syndrome and family history of leukemia are all linked with increasing t he risk of leukemia. IV. TREATMENT The ability to listen to one’s body is an important first step in finding a problem, so it can be properly diagnosed and treated (Wedro, 2012). The diagnosis of leukemia starts by going to the doctor and having a blood test. If the person is tested positive for leukemia then bone marrow aspiration test might be needed to check for the blood cells that cause leukemia and what type of leukemia it is.People with leukemia have many treatment options these days. According to the Leukemia and Lymphoma Society (2012), chances in surviving this disease is a lot better today than they were 40 years ago. The overall five-year survival rate for leukemia has nearly quadrupled in the past 50 years. From 1960 to 1963, the five-year relative survival rate among whites with leukemia was 14 percent, then it went up to 34. 4 percent from 1975 to 1977 and from 2001 to 2007, the overall relative survival rate was at 56. 6 percent.Treatment of this disease also depends on the type of leukemia, the age of the patient and if leukemia cells were found in the cerebrospinal fluid. Treatment for leukemia can be one or combination of chemotherapy, targeted therapy, biological therapy, radiation therapy and stem cell transplant. * Chemotherapy is probably the most common type of treatment for cancer. Chemotherapy uses drugs to destroy leukemia cells. A patient may receive chemotherapy by mouth, which are pills that can be swallowed, by vein or tube inserted into the vein.Another way to receive the drug is through catheter where a tube is placed in a large vein in the upper chest and drugs will be injected into the catheter rather than directly into veins. The drugs can also be received into the cerebrospinal fluid by injecting drugs directly into the cerebrospinal fluid * Targeted therapy is another treatment for people with chronic myeloid leukemia and some with acute lymphoblast leukemia. This type of therapy use drugs such as Imatinib (Gleevec) tablets that block the growth of leukemia cells, it blocks the action of an abnormal protein that stimulates the rowth of leukemia cells (National Cancer Institute, 2011). * Biological therapy for leukemia is a treatment that improves the body’s natural defenses against the disease. This is a substance that can be injected directly into the muscle or can be given by IV infusion. * Radiation Therapy or radiotherapy is another treatment for leukemia; it uses high energy rays to kill leukemia cells. Some people receive radiation therapy from a large machine that is aimed at the spleen, the brain, or other parts of the body where leukemia cells have collected.Others may receive radiation that is directly to the whole body. Radiotherapy is a standard treatment for many types of cancer (Anonymous, 2012). * Stem Cell Transplant is the replacement of damaged bone marrow cell with healthy cells. Stem cells that are used for transplants can be taken from bone marrow, from the bloodstr eam, or from umbilical cord blood. This treatment is used to treat the disease that damage or destroy the bone marrow and to restore the bone marrow after it has been destroyed by high doses of radiation and chemotherapy.Stem cells may come from the patient, from identical twin, family member and from other donor. People with acute leukemia need treatment right away and the goal of the treatment is to destroy signs of leukemia in the body and make symptoms go away. Many people with acute leukemia can be cured. (National Cancer Institute, 2011). If a person has chronic leukemia without symptoms, they may not need a cancer treatment right away. When treatment for chronic leukemia is needed, it can often control the disease and its symptoms.Unfortunately, CLL is probably incurable by present treatments as chronic leukemia can seldom be cured with chemotherapy. However, stem cell transplants offer people with chronic leukemia the chance for cure (National Cancer Institute, 2011). With a ll the technology available to us right now and with all the research and studies being done to find a new and better ways to treat leukemia, I’m hopeful that a cure for all types of leukemia will be discovered soon. CONCLUSION Learning you have leukemia or one of your loved ones have this disease can definitely change your live and the lives of those people around you.When we learned about my niece’s condition 5 years ago, there was a dramatic change in our family on how we viewed life and the importance of having a healthy body. My niece Shayna has gone through a lot of test, procedures and treatments because of this disease, it is probably her positive outlook in life and prayer that helped her fight this disease. Although Shayna is still taking Gleevec every day to block the growth of leukemia cells, her doctors already considered her to be in remission.She had normal blood counts for over four years now. In any disease, may it be cancer, diabetes, pneumonia or any life threatening or non-life threatening disease, it is important to listen to your body and do the first step of getting checked by a health care professional. It is also important to take life’s obstacle with a positive outlook and to have faith and hope from your love ones, from your health care provider, from yourself and from God, for all these would help a person deal and survive any disease.